Improving Speed, Power, and Explosiveness
Which abilities do coaches and athletes want to improve more than any
others? Virtually all individuals involved in sports would agree that
the answer is speed and power and with good reason, because speed and
power are essential ingredients for numerous sports. The expression of
sport-specific speed and force (popularly referred to as explosiveness)
strongly influences the rate of success in many of today's popular sports.
For example, in a sport like football, the players who demonstrate the
greatest amount of explosive power (all other variables being equal)
should dominate their opponents. Similarly, in track and field the shot
putter or hammer thrower who overcomes his/her implement's resistance
with the greatest possible speed of movement should, in theory, produce
the longest throw.
Hay and Reid (1988) define speed as distance covered divided by the
time taken to cover it. They propose focusing on the form, pattern, or
sequencing of movements with respect to time when trying to enhance movement
speed. In many competitive racing events, this recommendation means trying
to improve an athlete's stride length and/or stride frequency. Hall (1991)
supports these suggestions. She states that a major difference between
highly skilled sprinters and ice skaters when compared to their novice
counterparts is much higher stride frequencies seen by the elite group.
She also documents that elite cross-country skiers are usually distinguishable
from their slower (less-skilled) counterparts by longer than average
stride lengths.
In scientific terms, power is expressed by the equation: P ower
= F orce x D istance / T ime (Bryant,
1988). According to this description, training that involves all or various
parts of the power equation can affect explosiveness in sport.
Power output can be enhanced in three general ways. The first method
is to increase the force producing capabilities of the muscles (keeping
the distance moved and time it took to move the distance constant). Since
increases in explosiveness can be brought about by an increase in force,
a hockey player who improves full-body strength (other power variables
remaining constant) should be more explosive when skating up and down
the ice.
The second way to enhance power is to decrease the time it takes to
move over a given distance because of faster movement speed (keeping
force generated and distance moved constant). Using the concept that
improvements in power can be brought about through increased speed of
movement, elite swimmers repetitively practice their stroke mechanics
in an effort to improve skill coordination. Improved coordination of
the muscles involved in a sport skill should increase overall speed and
power output (other power variables remaining constant).
Increasing the distance that a force acts on a body or implement (keeping
the force generated and time elapsed constant) is another technique used
to enhance explosive power. A volleyball player or track jumper who drops
down into a deeper
(optimum) crouched position than normal may exhibit an improvement in
explosion (provided the force applied and time it is applied remain constant)
(Myers and Munroe, 1981).
Most sports require speed and power for success. There are many general
areas that can be addressed to enhance the expression of explosiveness
in sport. There are also specific strategies available to affect movement
speed and power output. The question is what areas and strategies should
be emphasized to enhance the expression of speed, power and explosiveness
in sport? The purpose of this chapter is to suggest probable physical
and mental strategies to improve speed, power and explosiveness in sport.
Specifically, the objectives are 1. To identify methods that directly
enhance movement speed and power output; 2. To review areas of motor
learning and sport psychology that may positively affect the expression
of speed and power.
Weight Training
Weight training, resulting in increased strength, is important for improving
explosiveness. Whenever the force producing capabilities of the muscles
are increased, the potential to improve speed and power for skill execution
is enhanced. Recent studies have shown that a progressive weight training
program can increase sprint speed and throwing velocity (Napier, 1991;
Wooden, Greenfield, Johanson, Litzelman, Mundrane, and Donatelli, 1992).
Some of this increase is due to greater amounts of muscle proteins (actin
and myosin); which means an increase in the ability to generate force.
Understanding and adhering to the guidelines that follow may achieve
speed and power enhancements through weight training.
Train full-body . Current research suggests that strengthening
opposing muscle groups (agonists and antagonists) enhances movement speed
(Jaric, Ropret, Kukolj and Ilie 1995). According to these data, strengthening
a major muscle group such as the hamstrings may result in faster leg
deceleration during high-speed activities (sprinting). Less time needed
by the hamstrings to decelerate the leg (while running) leaves a longer
period of time available for the quadriceps to increase leg acceleration,
resulting in faster lower limb speeds.
Maximal strengthening of all the major muscle groups of the body may
increase the time available for movement acceleration. The end result
should be faster movement speeds and explosiveness in potentially all
sport skills.
Systematically make the muscles work harder over time. To
increase muscle strength, make the muscles work progressively harder.
The four most common methods to make the muscles work harder are to increase
the repetitions, sets, load, or to systematically decrease the rest time
between sets/exercises.
Diminish momentum (lift slowly) . Momentum
is always present when lifting weights. However, the less momentum allowed
into the performance of each repetition, the more work the muscles have
to perform. The more work the muscles have to perform the greater gains
in force generating capacity, speed, and explosiveness.
Continue lifting to a point of demonstrated fatigue. Coaches
for years have asked, "should we have our players lift to a point of
all out fatigue for maximum results?" Exercise scientists do not currently
know what level of fatigue should be demonstrated before the termination
of a set for optimal strength in each muscle and individual. However,
training to a point where no complete concentric (positive portion of
the repetition) contraction can be achieved assures that athletes have
accomplished their intensity threshold (amount of fatigue) for optimal
results, whatever level of intensity it may be (Carpinelli, 1997).
Stretching and Flexibility
Flexibility has been defined as the range of motion about a joint (Fox,
Bowers, and Foss, 1993). Flexibility is important in improving speed
and power because the greater the range of motion about a joint, the
greater distance available to apply force. When distance to apply force
is increased while force and time are constant, explosiveness is improved.
For example, the quarterback possessing the greatest amount of shoulder
girdle flexibility should also have the greatest power output on each
throw (all other variables being equal). Speed and power
enhancements through flexibility training can be achieved by understanding
and following the guidelines outlined below.
Develop a program that is sport specific. Stretch
all the major muscles involved in the performance of the sport. Pay careful
attention to stretching opposing muscle groups and limbs so flexibility
imbalances are avoided. There is some research suggesting a greater incidence
of injury in populations with flexibility imbalances (Knapic, Bauman,
Jones, Harris and Vaughan, 1991).
Stretch after a warm-up or after the training activity. Beaulieu
(1981) suggests that a warm-up period decreases a muscle's chance of
injury when stretched because of greater extensibility. He also suggests
increased gains in flexibility occur when stretching is performed after
the muscle is warmed.
Ease into each stretch (without bouncing) to a point where a
tug is felt. Easing slowly into each stretch brings about
relaxation in the muscle enabling a further stretch (Noakes and Granger,
1990). Along with stretching slowly it is important not to overstretch,
which may lead to injury. Signs of going beyond a relative tolerance
can include accelerated breathing and burning sensations in the targeted
muscle.
Hold each stretch for 15-20 seconds . One
of the latest reviews on stretching suggests no meaningful differences
between holding a stretch 15 seconds, 45 seconds or 2 minutes (Smith,
1994).
Stretch each muscle three to five times. Current research
suggests that for maximal flexibility adaptations, each muscle may need
to be stretched 3-5 times per session (Smith, 1994).
Technique
In sports, the nature of the activity and the equipment used usually
control the distance over which force can be applied. However, by modifying
performance technique some athletes may be able to increase explosiveness
by increasing the distance over which they apply force. For example,
the shot putter who switches to a short-long technique where the glide
across the ring is shorter and length of the push (force application)
is longer may see improved power provided all other variables (time and
force) remain constant (Myers et al., 1981).
Equipment
More and more, sport scientists are pursuing ways to alter sports equipment
to increase the distance a competitor has to apply force. As with modifications
to technique, an increase in the distance to apply force may result in
greater power output.
One of the latest examples of this theory in action is the new skate
blade used by some Olympic long track speed skaters. The back portion
of the blade is not completely attached to the heel. This skate modification
increases the distance the skater applies force against the ice before
the blade has to snap back up against the skate boot. In theory, this
increased distance to apply force should result in more explosive skating
strides (provided other power variables remain constant).
Rate of Force Development
Increasing the size of one's engine (muscles) should allow the mass
of the body (during jumping or sprinting) or an external object (like
a competitor in football or wrestling) to be accelerated more explosively.
To be optimally successful in many speed and power sports it is also
important to be able to develop (the engine's) force rapidly. Having
a big engine but not being able to get it to top speed quickly is like
racing a Cadillac in the quarter mile. All that power may still result
in an unsuccessful performance if the driver cannot get to maximum speed
until the half-mile mark. For optimal sport success, speed and power
athletes should have large engines that reach top speed quickly.
Rate of force development is the ability of the neuromuscular system
to develop as much force as possible in a short period of time (Newton
and Kraemer, 1994). A rate of force development enhancement improves
explosiveness by decreasing the time it takes to move over a given distance
(provided other power variables are constant). Researchers suggest that
the key stimulus for enhancing rate of force development is maximum voluntary
effort (the intent) to develop force as fast as possible, not the external
speed of movement while training (Young and Bilby, 1993).
Coaches and athletes have the option of trying to enhance rate of force
development in the weight room, the sport setting or both. They also
have the choice of training using high speed or slow movements with an
intent to develop force quickly (for example, trying to accelerate a
heavy weight explosively).
Recent research suggests some options may be more practical than others.
For example, there is evidence to suggest an increased probability of
injury from the performance of some types of explosive weight training
movements (e.g., Olympic lifts, Leaper training and exercises using chain
operated equipment) (Brady, Cahill, Bodnar, 1982; Hall, 1985; McCarroll,
Miller, Ritter, 1986; Reid, Yeater, Ullrich, 1987). However, since most
subjects in the reviewed studies were unsupervised, it is unknown whether
it was the movements that caused injuries or the improper execution of
the movements. Regardless, explosive movement training in the weight
room still has a higher probability of causing musculotendinous injury
compared to slowly performed dynamic movements since greater forces of
momentum are generated at higher speeds (Behm, 1988). Furthermore, most
injuries appear to occur in the weight room from breaks in technique.
Explosive lifts requiring large amounts of technique (Olympic Lifts)
certainly add to the probability of improper execution and musculotendinous
injury.
A more practical and perhaps optimal method to increase rate of force
development may be for coaches and athletes to implement explosive sport
specific drills. Currently, some motor learning researchers suggest that
because weight training movements are different than those executed on
the field and court in dynamic situations, the explosive transfer may
be less than optimal (Schmidt, 1982). Furthermore, Sage (1984) proposes
that training tasks (movements that are dependent on practice and experience
for their execution) must be virtually identical in order for transfer
to performance to be practically meaningful.
To improve rate of force development in the sport setting, coaches should
study game film and design explosive drills incorporating identical sport
performance movement patterns. When implementing sport-specific power
workouts, athletes should explode at the start and try to accelerate
for the duration of each drill. As an example, basketball players should
perform jumps, defensive position lateral slides, diagonal, forward and
backward sprints explosively to enhance sport specific explosiveness.
Execution of sport movements with maximum voluntary effort to develop
force as fast as possible enhances athlete's rate of force development
in an exact (specific) manner. There may be no better form of movement
and velocity specific power training to ensure that explosive sport training
carries over to explosive sport performance.
The need to prepare in the exact manner as one is expected to perform
cannot be overstated. Students do not study algebra to take a geometry
test, even though they are similar subjects. Although both subjects are
under the umbrella of mathematics and because of their similarities studying
one may positively affect test results in the other, it should be obvious
that 'best' results would come from preparing in an exact manner.
Warm-up
McArdle, Katch and Katch (1991) state that speed of contraction can
be significantly increased by raising body temperature. A proper warm-up
should include activities that incorporate the large muscle groups of
the body in a rhythmic and repetitive manner. Warm-up activities should
be specific to the training exercise(s) but performed with a lower level
of effort for seven to fifteen minutes.
Drag
In many sports, movement speed and power may be improved by reducing
drag. Drag can be described as an external resistance that slows forward
motion (Lamb, 1995). Examples of drag in sport include headwind on the
forward speed of a track sprinter, water on the movement speed of a swimmer,
and an offensive tackle on the pass rush of a defensive lineman in football.
Equipment
To reduce drag, sport scientists have developed various forms of aerodynamic
and hydrodynamic sport apparatus. For example, newly designed rowing
shells have reduced water drag, while cycling helmets have reduced air
drag, thus improving competitive velocities and performance power. Athletes
who are involved in competitive sports that require movements against
the resistance of air or water are advised to research sport specific
apparatus to find the most drag reducing equipment available.
Body Composition
Modifications of body composition may also lead to the enhancement of
movement speed and power through reductions in drag. In explosive jumping
sports (high jumping, long jumping, triple jumping), a loss in body mass
results in a reduction in the drag of gravity (a limiting factor to success
in jumping sports). However, if the body mass lost is muscle tissue,
reductions in ability to produce force and explosiveness may also be
expected. Body composition alteration strategies should be carefully
considered before they are implemented so that power performances are
enhanced rather than affected negatively.
To improve explosiveness through enhanced body composition, athletes
should:
- Consult with a registered dietician who can provide a body composition
analysis, evaluation of current diet, determination of optimal and
realistic body composition expectations and diet modification strategies.
- Perform a weight training program following the suggestions previously
discussed.
- Acknowledge and accept that there does not currently appear to be
a safe and effective nutritional supplement that provides consistent
body composition enhancements in athletes.
Biomechanical Factors
Biomechanical factors further influence drag and sport explosiveness.
Changing body posture may decrease air drag in some racing sports. For
example, elite cyclists and downhill skiers gain speed and power output
by dropping into crouched postures thereby diminishing body surface area
exposed to air resistance.
Track coaches and runners have made an art out of reducing drag through
efficient biomechanical positions and postures. Although track experts
utilize a variety of technique cues, their general recommendations remain
the same: (a) demonstrate straight-line movements, and, (b) reduce vertical
lift and time spent in the air.
Successfully performing the following cues may enhance movement efficiency,
reducing drag and improving explosiveness. Start by driving with both
legs explosively in a straight-line direction. Gain as much ground as
possible with the first step. Run with the head erect and still. Relax
the jaw and face. Focus the eyes straight ahead. Keep the torso straight,
trying not to turn or flex. Rotate the arms at the shoulder (with very
little lift of the shoulders). Keep the arms tight to the torso. Do not
allow the hands to cross the mid-line of the body. Consistently drive
the front leg forcefully toward the ground. Point the toes and knees
straight ahead and toward the target or finish line (Riley, 1996).
Strategic Play
Strategic play and game planning in many contact sports is another method
that can be implemented to reduce external resistance to movement. For
example, an opponent's resistance (body mass) can be overcome through
practiced techniques under the instruction of intelligent coaches. A
case in point, wisely executed misdirection movements by a wrestler can
deceive a countering opponent into resisting in the wrong direction.
The reduction in external resistance by the opponent increases countering
movement velocity, and the opportunity for successful power movements
and performances.
Skill Execution
Skill execution can also affect drag and explosiveness. A good illustration
of the impact of skill on power is the contrast in blitz performances
of rookie and veteran defensive ends in football. The rookie may produce
the same power output as the veteran, but because the rookie is less
skillful in the execution of each explosive movement, power output is
misdirected. The veteran defensive end because of less wasted movement
encounters less resistance, gains greater forward velocity, and expresses
more functional explosiveness.
To improve explosiveness through enhanced skill demonstrations, athletes
need to learn efficient techniques from competent sport coaches and study
film of themselves executing the sport skills. Athletes should then practice
the exact sport movement patterns demonstrating their most skillful technique.
The specific goal of these procedures is to reduce drag resistance while
demonstrating the movement pattern as a purposeful conditioned reflex,
rather than as a skill that must be thought about before execution.
Attentional Focus and Reaction Time
The ability to focus one's attention (read) and react in explosive sports
often appears to be at least as important as movement time for successful
power performances. Watching a football linebacker get flattened by the
off-side guard on a misdirection play illustrates this point. In many
cases the linebacker gets crushed not because he was not explosive, but
because he did not have a correct read (focus) and/or did not demonstrate
good reaction time. Athletes can have awesome explosive capabilities
from the neck down but never get to use them effectively because of limiting
factors (mental focus problems and reaction time deficiencies) from the
neck up. Athletes may have a big, powerful gun (body) but if they cannot
pull the trigger (read and react appropriately) under competitive conditions,
the size of the gun and speed of the bullet (explosive movement speed)
become irrelevant (Ted Lambrinides, personal communication, April 3,
1998). Few, if any, other factors influence the expression of sport explosiveness
more than attentional focus and reaction time.
Attentional Focus
Attentional focus has been described in the scientific literature as
a process whereby athletes put a conscious effort into gathering appropriate
information from a specific situation (Posner, 1971). Nideffer (1976)
says that attentional focus can be broad or narrow, and internal or external.
A broad-external focus is usually used to quickly assess situations.
A quarterback in football should be able to keep this type of focus because
relevant cues for success come from stimuli that are in the external
environment (defensive scheme, weather).
The broad-internal focus is customarily employed to analyze a game plan.
A coach or athlete who is developing game strategies uses this type of
attentional focus.
A narrow-external concentration is practiced when minimal amounts of
external cues need to be focused on for success. A golfer focusing attention
on the ball he or she is about to drive is using this type of concentration.
The last type of attention is the narrow-internal. This focus is used
to systematically rehearse a performance or to control arousal. An example
of narrow-internal focus is a gymnast who mentally rehearses an explosive
vault or who is focused on his or her arousal level and is taking slow
deep breaths to relax. This type of focus is also used in competitive
weight lifting, where the focus is on effort.
Each explosive sport and event requires distinct attentional demands
at specific times for proper reads. For example, as offensive linemen
in football walk to the line of scrimmage they have an external-broad
focus on the environment (position of the defensive linemen, linebackers
and defensive backs). Once they have gathered this external information,
focus shifts to broad internal as each member of the line plans his duty
within their shared assignment. After the line calls are made, attention
focuses to a narrow-internal as the linemen monitor their tension, making
sure to be calm yet optimally aroused and aggressive. During this focus
the linemen may also mentally rehearse the moves they plan to use against
their individual opponents. Lastly, the linemen shift attention to narrow-external
as they focus on the quarterbacks' signals and their opponent.
Watching football linemen on film we can see when they do not look explosive,
miss their assignments and mess up plays. What we cannot tell is why.
Did a lineman miss picking up the blitzing defensive back because his
movement speed was too slow? Possibly, but lack of explosiveness could
also be attributed to improper focus and a bad read. If, for example,
linemen stay focused internally on their nervousness and do not switch
over to the appropriate narrow-external focus (quarterback's cadence
and their opponent's position) at the right time, they can get off the
line too late and miss their opponent.
Implementing the following suggestions may improve attentional focus
leading to an enhanced ability to read, react and dominate explosive
play. Operationally define the terms "focus" and "concentration" so that
common language is used between coaches and athletes. Recognize which
type(s) of attentional focus are appropriate during specific sport situations.
Practice the proper focuses mentally while physically practicing the
sport skills. The combination of both physical and mental training may
help individuals learn to lock into a correct focus that allows faster
and more accurate reads. Improvements in attentional focus may lead to
faster more accurate reaction times and successful performances in high-speed
interactive sports.
Reaction Time
Reaction time refers to the time it takes to initiate a motor response
to a presented stimulus (Grouios, 1992). Reaction time can be improved
by implementing the following suggestions. Instruct athletes through
film study to identify a small number of relevant variables. The fewer
situational and opponent cues that need to be read and reacted to, the
shorter the response times (Nemish, 1994). Watching a hockey goalie demonstrates
this point. Most goalies have higher save success rates when they have
to react to only one player on a break away as opposed to two or three.
Limit the amount of possible response choices an athlete has to consider
before reacting. For example, a basketball player defending a three-on-one
fast break who has been told to pressure the ball will read and respond
faster than a player defending the break who has been told he/she has
three defensive options to analyze before choosing a correct response.
Scout adversaries. Scouting brings knowledge of opponent tendencies
that may allow athletes to invest in early reads and responses. For instance,
in baseball a hitter may know that the pitcher has a tendency to throw
the fastball for his 'out' pitch. Knowing this the hitter primes his
concentration and physical readiness for the fast ball on a three and
two count, thereby improving response time and the probability of hitting
the fastball.
Appropriate Conditioning
Most sports require competitors to express their explosive power and
speed repeatedly in order to excel. Having wide receivers in football
run 4.3 forty-yard dash times in the first quarter and 5.5 forty-yard
dash times in the fourth quarter, describes a potentially explosive athlete
who is unable to produce at a critical time in the game. All athletes
must be conditioned in a sport specific manner to maximize their explosive
endurance capacity.
There are two important methods to improving absolute speed and explosiveness
through conditioning. First, systematically train the specific energy
system used in the performance, using identical sport movement patterns.
This way the athletes accomplish cardiovascular and muscular conditioning
in an identical manner, as he/she will be asked to perform. Second, practice
repeated sport movements (starts, sprints, jumps) at maximal speed and
effort with total recovery between work intervals. The reason for repeated
practices in this manner is because during the conditioning process a
majority of athletes gauge their effort in order to make it through the
workout. To see optimal gains in explosiveness, athletes need to train
in a non-fatigued state. This teaches the players to consistently demonstrate
maximal efforts and coordinate their movements efficiently at high speeds.
Conclusion
Many sports require the expression of great speed and power for success.
There are many areas and strategies currently available to improve sport
explosiveness. At the present time, there does not appear to be one best
method or recipe to improve speed and power for all athletes in all sport
situations.
Each sport, position, and circumstance should be analyzed to decide
how speed and power can be modified to maximize performance. Realistic
training and performance goals should then be set based on the speed
and power improvement possible. Coaches and athletes need to understand
motor abilities like speed of limb movement, explosiveness and flexibility,
to a large degree, are genetically determined. For example, Wilmore,
(1982) suggests that sprint speed may only be enhanced about 10% through
training. Olympic history supports this hypothesis. In 1900 Jarvis, from
the USA, set the Olympic 100-meter dash at 11 seconds. In 1980, Wells
from Germany, set a new 100-meter dash mark of 10.25, an improvement
of only .75 over an eighty-year period (Komarek, 1998). This actuality
tells all that speed and explosiveness can be improved, but not to a
large degree. It suggests to coaches that recruitment of gifted (explosive)
athletes should be the first priority (if speed and explosiveness are
an important part of the game). More importantly, it tells competitors
that the purchase of magical training recipes and equipment are ill advised
at best. Meaningful sport specific speed and power improvements do not
come from running along the yellow brick road with a parachute or by
paying the wizard for magic pills and powders. The demonstration of sport
specific explosiveness comes from a combination of genetics; intelligent
coaches who know how to communicate their training knowledge and athletes
who are motivated to use that knowledge. Good Luck!
Tim Wakeham , M.S., CSCS
Assistant Strength and Conditioning Coach
Michigan State University
Check out Tim's Training Videos
View the references for this article